During an early summer after-concert party at Carnegie Hall in 1971, a clearly relieved Carole King, riding an emotional high after the successful reception of her very first pop concert, told a Rolling Stone stringer, perhaps jokingly, that Alfred Wegener inspired the lyrics for her classic hit (“der Schlager”) I Feel the Earth Move! We’ll probably never know if Ms King was serious; however, who can say the claim itself is not on firm ground?
Alfred Lothar Wegener (01 November 1880 ― ?? November 1930) was a German meteorologist and geophysicist who carefully devised and articulated (1910-1915) the concept of continental drift, a scientific hypothesis that other scientists rejected for several decades, but which ultimately gave rise to the theory of plate tectonics―now accepted almost universally by scientists and laymen alike.
The Continental Drift Theory
Continental drift is defined as the large-scale horizontal movements of continents relative to one another and to the ocean basins during one or more episodes of geologic time. This concept was an important precursor to the development of the theory of plate tectonics, which incorporates it.
Alfred Wegener initially referred to his proposed ancient continent as “Urkontinent,” with “ur” signifying “first or original” and “kontinent” representing “continent” in his native German. A widely adopted alternative name for this vast ancient landmass is Pangaea, derived from the Greek term meaning “all lands.”
Alfred Wegener’s University Career
The University of Berlin awarded Wegener a Ph.D. in astronomy in 1905; however, Wegener developed an enthusiastic and abiding interest in paleoclimatology, the scientific study of the climates of past ages. He focused on the arctic regions and polar air circulation, particularly in Greenland, and took part in several expeditions to that remote, ice-covered island, first in 1906, then in 1912, 1929, and, finally, in 1930, during which expedition he died at only 50 years of age. His body and effects are supposedly now covered by more than 100 meters of ice and snow.
When not trudging through Greenland’s ice and snow, Wegener taught meteorology, first at the University of Marburg, beginning in 1909, where he covered meteorology, astronomy, and a topic he called “astronomic-geographic position-fitting” for explorers, i.e., how not to get lost in unchartered territory. In 1921, Wegener accepted the position of meteorologist at the German Naval Observatory in Hamburg and the University of Hamburg appointed him senior lecturer; however, the worldwide scientific community continued to sneer at his continental-drift hypothesis and writings on continental drift and he keenly felt the academic isolation at the University of Hamburg. In 1924, he took up the position of professor of meteorology and geophysics at the University of Graz, in Austria, where he continued until his death in 1930.
Pioneer in Plate Tectonics
Alfred Wegener emerged as a pioneer of plate tectonics with his groundbreaking hypothesis, first presented to the German Geological Society on January 6, 1912. While Wegener’s idea of continental drift built upon earlier speculations by scientists like Mantovani, Taylor, Coxworthy, and Pickering, he was credited with providing a more comprehensive and independent formulation.
Acknowledging the contributions of his predecessors, Wegener proposed that the continents were once part of a supercontinent named Pangaea, subsequently breaking apart and drifting to their current positions. Wegener coined the term “continental drift” (in German “die Verschiebung der Kontinente”), and presented extensive evidence to support his theory.
Despite being unable to offer a fully convincing explanation for the underlying physical processes, Wegener’s groundbreaking work laid the foundation for the modern understanding of plate tectonics. The mid-20th century even saw the theory referred to as the “Taylor-Wegener hypothesis” in recognition of the similarities between Wegener’s and Frank B. Taylor‘s ideas.
The Earth’s Magnetic Field as Evidence
In the 1950s, magnetic polarity evidence emerged, shedding light on Earth’s magnetic history. Using magnetometers, scientists examined rocks’ magnetic properties, particularly magnetite crystals, which act as tiny magnets pointing to the magnetic north pole.
Remarkably, studies revealed that while fresh volcanic rocks point to the current magnetic north pole, older rocks of the same age on the same continent did not. When rocks of the same age on different continents were examined, their magnetite crystals pointed to different magnetic north poles. For instance, 400-million-year-old magnetite in Europe pointed to a different north magnetic pole than the same-aged magnetite in North America.
Evidence of the movement of the Earth’s continents relative to each other
If the continents had remained fixed while the north magnetic pole moved, there must have been two separate north poles. As there is only one north pole today, the only reasonable explanation is that the north magnetic pole has remained fixed but that the continents have moved.
This evidence supported Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis, indicating that while the north magnetic pole remained relatively fixed, the continents had drifted, giving rise to the concept of apparent polar wander. This magnetic evidence sparked renewed interest in understanding the mechanisms behind continental movement on the Earth’s surface
First International Recognition
The New York Times wrote about Wegener’s theory of continental drift in an extensive article on Sunday, 25 March 1923, commenting that “. . . records indicate Greenland is . . . running wild. It has moved west by almost four-fifths of a mile (1,300 meters) in 37 years.” The article also cited “The almost universal distribution of many families of animals, birds, insects, and plants as proved both by fossils and surviving specimens . . .” as evidence that Wegener’s theory had merit.
Nevertheless, the then collective received wisdom of the world’s scientific community was skeptical at best, offering various counter-theories to explain or refute the arguments Wegener put forth. Yet they tempered their criticisms with the safe argument that “. . . it becomes very apparent that the surest test of its [Wegener’s theory] validity lies in the domain of geology.”
Critics of the Theory of Continental Drift
One of the most consistent critics of Wegener’s continental drift theory was Thomas Chamberlin, a prominent U. S. geologist with the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Chamberlin, a very intelligent, well-educated, and experienced academic, proved to be quite stupid, i.e., someone who thinks he knows it all and who absolutely refuses to keep an open mind, particularly in the face of credible scientific research.
Chamberlin did not use a point-by-point refutation of the theory of continental drift. Rather, he based his appeal to fellow scientists to reject Wegener’s theory by appealing to their egos and to their innate supposed laziness.
He said, “If we are to believe Wegener’s hypothesis, we must forget everything that has been learned in the last 70 years and start all over again.” In other words, “let’s tell ourselves that we already know the truth and save ourselves the effort of examining the validity of what we think we know.”
Years later, Chamberlin’s group would also oppose acceptance of the theory of plate tectonics, a theory that is now a well-established scientific fact. There are none so blind as those who will not see.
© Pixabay
Matching up rock formations on either side of the Atlantic Ocean
When one compares a map of South America with a map of Africa, it’s quite obvious that the bulge of South America more or less corresponds to the bight of Africa. It is that phenomenon that first struck Wegener as being too odd to be a mere coincidence; there had to be more to it. From a practical point of view, one is inclined to ask: “Are there diamond fields and veins of gold in that part of South America that corresponds geographically to South Africa, i.e., southeastern Uruguay and northeastern Argentina?”
The Breakthrough of the Theory of Continental Drift
So, scientist thought it was ridiculous to suggest how solid continents could have moved. The scientific community wrangled about Wegener’s theory for more than four decades before the theory of plate tectonics evolved.
During the 1930s and 1940s, scientific communication faced hindrances due to World War II, impeding the progress of the continental drift theory, which still needed refinement to address orogeny and isostasy objections. The breakthrough came about in the early 1950s when the imprints of the Earth’s magnetic history, the study of which is called paleomagnetism, were closely examined.
There was no adequate explanation other than continental drift to account for the otherwise erratic occurrences of incompatible magnetic imprints. Researchers realized that, only if there had indeed been only one continent in the beginning, the oddly occurring magnetic imprints would result only by that huge continent’s breaking up and the pieces drifting off in different directions.
That significant research and discovery prompted even more intense scrutiny of magnetic imprints around the world. The increased interest among geologists and geophysicists, coupled with ever more sophisticated techniques and measuring instruments, established beyond doubt that plate tectonics and continental drift are indisputably valid.
Modern Research and Evidence
Geophysicist Jack Oliver is renowned for supplying seismologic evidence in support of plate tectonics, surpassing the earlier continental drift theory. His 1968 article, “Seismology and the New Global Tectonics,” drew on data from seismologic stations, including those established in the South Pacific.
The contemporary plate tectonics theory refines Wegener’s ideas, positing two crust types—continental and oceanic—both resting above a deeper, plastic mantle. Oceanic crust forms at spreading centers, driving the plate system through subduction and spreading, leading to continuous orogeny and areas of isostatic imbalance.
Extensive evidence now supports the movement of continents on tectonic plates. Similar plant and animal fossils on different continents suggest past connections. Examples include Mesosaurus fossils in Brazil and South Africa and Lystrosaurus fossils in rocks of the same age in Africa, India, and Antarctica. Living evidence includes earthworm families found in both South America and Africa.
The distinctive alignment of South America and Africa, while currently evident, is considered a temporary coincidence. Over millions of years, tectonic forces such as slab pull and ridge-push will further separate and rotate these continents. Although Wegener didn’t witness the widespread acceptance of his continental drift hypothesis, the temporary alignment fueled his initial studies.
A crucial piece of evidence for continental drift is the widespread distribution of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments across South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica, and Australia. The presence of oriented glacial striations and tillites indicated the continuity of glaciers, supporting the concept of the supercontinent Gondwana and reinforcing the idea that southern continents were once closely connected in different locations.
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FAQs about Alfred Wegener, continental drift theory, and evidence
Here are some of the questions people ask about the “Continental drift” theory.
Why did Alfred Wegener think the continents moved?
Alfred Wegener proposed the continental drift theory based on observations such as apparent polar wander, identical rock formations on opposite sides of oceans, and the fit of continents, suggesting they were once connected.
What was Alfred Wegener’s main theory about Pangaea?
Alfred Wegener’s main theory suggested that all continents were once part of a supercontinent that later drifted apart due to the movement of tectonic plates. He hypothesized that all of the modern-day continents had been part of a super continent called Pangaea (from ancient Greek, meaning “all lands” or “all the Earth”).
What is the continental drift theory in summary?
The continental drift theory posits that Earth’s continents were once joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea and have since drifted apart due to the movement of tectonic plates.
What were Alfred Wegener’s 4 important pieces of evidence that proved the theory of continental drift?
- Identical rock formations on opposite sides of oceans.
- The fit of continents, suggesting they were once connected.
- Apparent polar wander indicating changes in the Earth’s magnetic poles.
- Fossil evidence of the same species found on continents now separated by oceans.
Summing Up: What Was Alfred Wegener’s Continental Drift Theory
Alfred Wegener’s visionary contributions to the earth sciences, proposing the continents drifted over time, offer the only reasonable explanation for the movement observed in the current north magnetic pole. Modern research and evidence, including magnetic polarity and fossil patterns, validate Wegener’s pioneering insights, reshaping geological understanding and highlighting Earth’s dynamic geological processes. If you’re interested in more German history like this, come check us out at SmarterGerman!